Re-classifying Iron Age marsh-forts

Reeves, Theodore James ORCID: 0000-0003-3229-2178 (2025). Re-classifying Iron Age marsh-forts. University of Birmingham. Ph.D.

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Abstract

Marsh-forts, as they currently stand, are a relatively poorly understood class of archaeological site. They have been consigned to a sub-category of hillfort using a descriptive criterion based on proximity to a generalising view of ‘wetland’. In doing so, we have lost sight of much of their nuance. Sites currently within this category often share little in common. This thesis re-examines these sites by integrating site morphology, landscape, and environmental analysis, causing us to rethink current classificatory models.

This research compiles a gazetteer of thirty-four sites previously classified as ‘marsh-forts’. Beginning with a re-examination of each site, this thesis reflects on our current understanding of each site, incorporating earlier investigations and building upon them by applying current archaeological theory, GIS analysis, and new field observations. The resulting summaries focus on the architecture of the enclosures and their relationship with the surrounding wetland and dryland environments, as well as commenting on the evidence for internal activity where it is available. In doing so, this research highlights the disparate levels of archaeological investigations across these sites, ranging from extensive excavations published in monographs to sites whose known existence is dependent on vague antiquarian commentary. These assessments identify thirteen sites where geoarchaeological investigations were required to develop our understanding of the sites. The subsequent borehole surveys determined the nature, extent, date and condition of any wetland deposits. The results of this work broaden our understanding of specific sites and, in some cases, call into question pre-existing and long-held beliefs about their environments.

This thesis concludes by addressing the two primary research aims: to refine and provide a detailed understanding of ‘marsh-forts’ and to reconsider the classificatory framework for archaeological sites. The study refines the initial thirty-four candidate sites, identifying sites which have been incorrectly attributed to this classification, recognising alternative landscape focuses besides wetland (e.g. river-associated enclosures) and producing a new framework for marsh-forts which reflects a range of site-landscape interaction and relationships. This culminates in the distinction of ‘marsh-forts’ and ‘forts in marshes’; the former referring to a more symbolic wetland-oriented category of site, the latter to a more functional interaction. In doing so, the culminating analysis identifies a range of social and environmental nuances, which allow us to better understand past people. Through this analysis, the thesis serves as an example of a new model of archaeological site classification based on interpretive rather than descriptive terminology. It proposes a new rationale based on features such as ‘directionality’, visibility, accessibility, connectivity and segregation. This new model integrates the natural environment within the cultural/historic as a fundamental part of our understanding. In realising this, we can improve our interpretation of heritage assets and develop new heritage management practices that recognise the importance of preserving natural and human environments as a single entity.

Type of Work:

Thesis (Doctorates > Ph.D.)

Award Type:

Doctorates > Ph.D.

Supervisor(s):